Researched and Written By:
Rashid Butt
Rashid Butt
Nagarparkar Jain Temple (Pakistan)
Prelude:
Quaid-e-Azam envisioned a tolerant and egalitarian society which would
rise above religion, caste and creed and give equal rights and privileges to
all the Pakistanis. Unfortunately, the leadership after his demise, failed to
up hold the vision. Many religious minorities had to migrate, go undercover,
convert or disappear.
The research findings show that presently there are no Jains living in Pakistan Pakistan Lahore Lahore
Waryam Singh and Sant Singh of Khalsa college, Amritsar
in “History of India ,
Ancient and Medival,” published by Malhotra Brothers, Lahore
The word Jainism comes from the Sanskrit word for saint
"jinah" which dreives from "Jayanti" meaning "he
conquers" - thus they are conquers of mortal bondage.
Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, Jainism is one of the three most
ancient religions.
The Faith:
Fundamental Principles.
Some further information
has been gathered from Encyclopedia Britinnica:
·
Non-violence (Ahimsa) not
to cause harm to any living beings.
·
Truthfulness (Satya) to
speak the harmless truth only.
·
Non-stealing (Asteya)not to
take anything not properly given.
·
Chastity (Brahmacharya) not
to indulge in sensual pleasure.
·
Non-possession/Non-attachment
(Aparigraha) complete detachment from people, places, and material things.
·
Jainism is a religion of
love and compassion above all else. Jains believe that the universe is eternal.
They believe in the eternity of the soul. There are thought to be multitudes of
souls or life-modas, which are all independent and eternal.
·
Practicing the ideals of
Jainism results in the souls getting lighter in color and rising to the that of
a universal being.
·
The goal of the Jains is to
achieve liberation and then to float like a bubble to the ceiling of the
universe.
·
Jainism, which does not
espouse belief in a creator god, has as its ethical core the doctrine of
ahimsa, or noninjury to all living creatures, and as its religious ideal the
perfection of man's nature, to be achieved predominantly through the monastic
and ascetic life.
Scripture/Religions Literature:
Ø According to the Svetambaras, the sacred literature preserved
orally since Mahavira was systematized and written down by a council convened
about the end of the 4th century B.C., but it is generally agreed that it was
not given its present shape until some 800 years later (454 or 467 A.D.).
Ø The Svetambara canon (agama) consists of 45 texts:
·
11 Angas (“Parts”), 12th,
the Drstivada, is not extant.
·
12 Upangas (subsidiary
texts). Mula-sutras (basic texts). 6 Cheda-sutras (oncerned with discipline), 2
Culika-sutras (appendix texts), and 10 Prakirnakas (mixed, assorted texts).
Digambaras give canonical status to two principal works in Prakrit: the
Karmaprabhrta ("Chapters on Karman") and the Kasayaprabhrta (“Chapters
on Kasayas”) and accord great respect to several other works and commentaries.
Jain scriptures were written over a long period of time, but the most
cited is the Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Reality written by the monk-scholar,
Umasvati (aka Umāsvāmi) almost 1800 years ago. The primary figures are
Tirthankaras. The two main sects called Digambar and Svetambar, both believe in
ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, sanskār, and jiva.
Jain literature
Jains have contributed to India
·
Some of the oldest known
books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. The first
autobiography in Hindi, [Ardha-Kathanaka] was written by a Jain, Banarasidasa,
an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra
·
Several Tamil classics are
written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
·
Practically all the known
texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit
(Agamas, Agama-Tulya, Siddhanta texts, etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit
(Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc).
"Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri, is only
one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand the Jain
Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Ardha-Magadhi and other Jain languages, words, their use
and references with in oldest Jain literature. Later Jain literature was
written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Hindi (Chhahadhala, Mokshamarga
Prakashaka, and others), Tamil (Jivakacintamani, Kural, and others),
and Kannada (Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of Ramayana
and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha and Kannada.
Philosophy
·
Jain metaphysics is a
dualistic system dividing the universe into two ultimate and independent
categories: soul or living substance (jiva), which permeates natural forces
such as wind and fire as well as plants, animals, and human beings; and
non-soul, or inanimate substance (ajiva), which includes space, time, and
matter.
·
The next most important
concept is that of karma, which, is regarded in Jainism as a substance, subtle
and invisible, yet material, which flows into and clogs the jiva, causing the
bondage of life and transmigration.
·
This inflow can be stopped
by many lives of penance and disciplined conduct, resulting in the final
moksha, or liberation, the ultimate goal of human endeavour.
·
Souls are divided into
those that have attained perfection and those still in bondage.
Ethics:
·
The Jain ethic is a direct
consequence of the philosophy of soul and karma. Since the individual's primary
duty is the evolution and perfection of his soul and that of his fellow
creatures, ahimsa, or the refraining from harming any living being, is the
cardinal principle.
·
Jains build asylums and
rest houses for old and diseased animals, where they are kept and fed until
they die a natural death.
·
The three ideals of
samyagdarsana ("right belief"), samyagjñana ("right
knowledge"), and samyakcarita ("right conduct") are known as the
three jewels, or ratnatraya.
Mythology
and Cosmology
·
Lesser gods are classified
into four main groups: bhavanavasis (gods of the house), vyantaras
(intermediaries), jyotiskas (luminaries), and vaimanikas (astral gods).
·
These are each subdivided
into several groups.
·
Besides these, certain
other gods and goddesses are mentioned in various Jaina texts, including
several that suggest Hindu influence or borrowing from some common ancient
Indian heritage.
·
All these deities are
assigned a position subordinate to the Tirthankaras and other liberated souls.
·
Time is Conceived as
Eternal and Formless.
·
The world is infinite and
was never created. Space (akasa), all-pervasive and formless, provides
accommodation to all objects of the universe and is divided into the space of
the universe (lokakasa) and that of the non-universe (a-lokakasa), the latter
having no substance in it.
·
Through the centre of the
universe runs the region of mobile souls in which all living beings, including
men, animals, gods, and devils, live.
·
Above the central region is
the upper world of two parts; below it lies the lower world subdivided into
seven tiers.
Places of worships, Shrines
Temples
The Jains have erected monumental stupas in honour of their saints, and
the richness and quality of their architecture and carving in stone have few
equals.
Jaina temples generally contain a number of metal images of various
types and metal plaques depicting auspicious symbols. Jainism preaches
universal tolerance, and its attitude toward other religions is that of no
criticism. It is not competitive and has never cared for the spread of its
faith. Among its followers are the traders and merchants of Gujarat and Maharashtra states.
Pratikraman Jain rituals.
Instincts
Antiquity of Jainism
Yakshas and Yakshinies Lesser Jain deities.
Premchand B. Gada Says something about Jain deities, the worship
idols: YAKSHAS AND YAKSHINIES
Jains worship idols of Jinas, Tirthankars, who are reverend as supreme
beings but as the time passed by Jains also started worshipping many other
deities, Yaksas and Yaksinis, in Jain temples.
They are not same as Jina, Arihant, or Tirthankars who have conquered
the inner passions while these deities (Yaksas and Yaksinis) are full of
passions and are wandering through the cycles of births and death just like us.
They are also called shashandevtas, gaurdian deities.
They are heavenly beings of Vyantar group who have supernatural powers
including changing capabilities of their form and size.
Jains believe that these Yaksas and Yaksinis were appointed by Indra to
look after the well beings of Tirthankaras. Therefore, they were always found
around Jinas and reflected their presence in Jain temples around the idols of
Jinas. They are found in pairs of a male (yaksha) and a female (yakshini) Yaksa
usually found on the right side of the Jina idol while yaksini on left side. In
the earlier period they were regarded mainly as devotees of Jina but as the
time passed by, people started worshiping them.
Not all Yaksa are benevolent, because some can be malevolent. Just as
some Yaksa paid homage to Lord Mahavira and protectd him from some sufferings,
Yaksa Sulpani troubled Lord Mahavira in his mediation and inflictedsuffering.
Similar stories are available where yaksa troubled others too. The residential
place (bhavana) of Yaksa is also known as chaitya or ayatana. It could be
anywhere, outside the city, on the hill or a mountain, on the tree, by the
water reservoir, at the gate of a city, or within a city in a house or a
palace. The famous Yaksa Angulimala was living on the tree in the forest and
when reformed for better he had a place at the city gate.
The humans are opportunistic and since Jinas would not reward no matter
how sincerely one may worshiop them, Jains looked at yaksas and yaksanis for
the immediate returns, and to self serve Jains gave them the places in their
temples. Some Yaksa were and are known for bestowing fertility and wealth.
Therefore, they had become very popular and their idols had been placed in Jain
temples and Jains worship them. Jains offer them different things in favor of
boons for children, wealth or freedom from fear, illness or disease.
The earlier scriptures like the Sthanagansutra, Utradhyayansutra,
Bhagwatisutra, Tattvarthsutra, Antagadasasaosutra, and Paumacariya have
frequent references to the Yaksa. Their reference as Shasandevatas in the
Harivamsapurana (783 A.D.) marks the beginning of the concept. Among all the
yakshas, Manibhadra and Purnabadra yakshas and Bahuputrika yakshini have been
the most favored one. Manibhadra and Purnabadra yakshas are mentioned as chief
of demigods Manibhadra of Northern horde and Purnabadra of Southern horde.
Bahuputrika (having many sons) is named as one of the queen of Manibhadra.
Harivamsapurana also describes the capability of yakshas and yakshnins to
pacify the harmful power of rogas, grahas, raksasas, bhutas and pisachas.
The people also believed that they bestow favors to those who worship
them and because of that became more popular then Jinas for some. Therefore,
the people started worshipping them for materialstic desires which could not be
fulfilled by the worship of Vitaraga Jina. Due to this, between tenth and
thirteenth centuries A. D.2 yaksha Saarvanubhuti, or Sarvahna and yakshini
Cakreshvari, Ambika, Padmavati, and Jvalamalini became so popular that
independent cults developed around them. Various temples were erected just to
worship them and you can see that even now.
The Jaina works from the sixth to the tenth century A. D. mention only
some of the iconographic features of Yaksharaja (Sarvahna or Sarvanubhuti) and
Dharanendra Yaksha and Cakreshvari, Ambika, Padmavati, Yakshi.
Pramodaben Chitrabhanu adds about the deities:
CHAKRESHWARE DEVI:
She is the dedicated attendant deity of lord Adinath (Rishabhadev). She
is also called Apratichakra. This goddess is golden in colour. Her Vehicle is
the eagle. She has eight arms. In her four right hands she holds the blessing
mudra, arrow, rope and wheel. In her four left hands she holds the rein, the
bow, the protective weapon of Indra and the wheel.
AMBIKA DEVI:
She is the dedicated deity of Lord Neminath the 22nd Tirthankara. She is
also called Ambai Amba and Amra Kushmandini. Her color is golden and the lion
is her vehicle. She has four arms. In her right hands she carries a mango and a
branch of a mango tree. In her left hands she carries a rein and the hasher two
sons.
PADMAVATI DEVI:
She is the dedicated deity of Lord Parshvanath, the 23rd Tirthankara.
Her color is golden and her vehicle is the snake with a cock's head. She has
four arms and her two right hands hold a lotus and a rosary. The two left hands
hold a fruit and a rein.
SARASWATI DEVI:
Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge, is considered to be the source of
all learning. This divine energy is the source of spiritual light, remover of
all ignorance and promoter of all knowledge. She is respected and adored by all
faiths, worldly persons and saints. She has four arms, one holding a book, the
other a rosary and two hands holding a musical instrument Veena. Her seat is a
lotus and the peacock is her vehicle representing equanimity in prosperity. In
some places it is mentioned that the swan is her vehicle.
LAKSHMI DEVI:
Goddess Lakshmi represents wealth. People worship her as the goddess of
wealth, power, money etc. In the upper two hands, she is holding a lotus with
an elephant, in the lower right hand a rosary and in the lower left hand a pot.
MANIBHADRA DEV:
Shri Manibhadra is originally a yaksha, worshipped by Indians from
ancient times and his introduction in Jainworship is only a later adaptation.
It is an image of six armed yaksha with an elephant as his vehicle.
GHANTAKARNA VEER:
This deity is worshipped for protection and for driving away the evil
influence created by lower types of negative energy. His arrow indicates
penetration of evil forces. The bow gives forceful momentum to the arrow. His
symbol is the bell that resounds to create auspicious sounds in the atmosphere.
Sometimes people who are not aware of the facts call him by mistake Ghantakarna
Mahavira that creates confusion between Lord Mahavira and Ghantakarna Veer. He
is not connected to Lord Mahavir in any way.
NAKODA BHAIRAVA:
This is the tutelary deity of Bhairava. This deity is usually found near
the entrance of the temple. People from far and near, visit the shrine and make
offerings to the deity on fulfillment of their material desires. It is the
positive force around the temple.
BHOMIYAJI:
This deity is in the shape of a mountain. It is the natural positive
energy of the mountain Sametshikharji. This energy inspires and guides the
believer and the traveler.
The origin and History:
The Founder of Jainism was Vardhamana Mahavira .Mahavira, was born in
540 B. C. His father, Sidhartha was a wealthy baron in the city of Vaisali Khalsa College ,
Amritsar writes in the ''History of India
In the beginning of his life Parswa Nath too had lived in pleasures and
luxury. He gave up everything at the age of thirty three. He went into
meditation and attained knowledge after three months. He died at the age of
seventy somewhere in the eighth century B. C.
The parents of Vardhaman were the members of this order, which he
himself joined at the age of thirty. He lived the life of an ascetic for twelve
years and at the age of forty two 'he reached supreme knowledge and final
deliverance from the bonds of pleasure and pain'.
Afterwards he was called Mahavira (the great hero), or Jina (the
conqueror), or 'Kevalin' (the all-knowing).
His followers came to be known first as Nir-granthas (free from fetters)
and later on as Jinas. Then for another thirty years he preached the Truth and
died in 468 B. C. in Patna
Teachings and Scriptures:
Parswa Nath's teaching gave him no satisfaction. Only men of noble blood
were eligible for admission into it. Mahavira was against such exclusiveness.
He agreed with some of the principles of Parswa Nath, some of which were:—
1. Thou shalt possess no property.
2. Thou shalt not injure any living being.
3. Thou shalt tell the truth.
4. Thou shalt not steal.
With a view to making them more perfect, Vardhaman added two more :—
5. Thou shalt observe chastity.
6. Thou shalt not use clothes.
Mahavira was the contemporary of Buddha. Like Buddha he too began his
career in the centre of an intellectual movement on the lower Ganges .
His life and teaching are marked by many points of resemblance with his better
known contemporary. He derived the basic principles of philosophy from the
Vedic literature, although denied the authenticity of the Vedas as an
infallible authority, and the efficacy of the rites prescribed in them for the
purpose of salvation. He used the common language of the people for the
propagation of his ideas, which emphasized the need for a pure and moral life
and not to harm living things. He believed in the doctrines of Karma and the
transmigration of soul, and was opposed to the institution of caste system. He
advocated the renunciation of this world and for the achievement of the ideals
organized strong communities. He was perhaps the product of the prevailing
spirit of the time and followed the methods to seek the truth. He received
recruits from the same classes of people as did the Buddha. A real change in
the situation was brought by events that happened later. It is strange to
notice that Jainism to this day holds the ground in some quarters which are
well known both for their intellect and wealth.
Faith and the Philosophy:
Philosophy of Jainism believes in the misery of all existence and the
desirability of liberation from worldly fetters. Jina believed that soul has a
real and self contained existence and during life it remains attached to the
base elements of material body and bids them good-bye after death. The soul is
then enclosed in a form of ethereal brightness until the Karma, the ethical
result of the actions performed in life, obliges it to become reincarnate and
resume the burden of suffering. The Jains believe in the existence of higher
and highest beings which are to receive respect from mankind. The Jina or the
All Conqueror stands at the top. It is only
this class, which is free from birth and death that enjoys absolute
peace and purity. There are a greater number of such perfect people in Jainism.
These prophets descend on earth at appointed periods twenty four in each of the
three divisions of time into the past, present and future. They all show the
way to salvation and freedom from all earthly difficulties.
Parswa Nath was the twenty third and Mahavira twenty fourth of his
division of time. They all preach 'purity of faith, true insight and virtue
undefiled.' All diciples believe in (Tirikathankaras) Jina and in the system of
higher beings, and also the eternal objective existence of both soul and the
world. The Jains put confidence in ruthless asceticism as an aid to freedom
from earthly bondage. Suicide through starvation has been considered desirable.
The teachings:
This freedom is possible only through the adoption of the three gems of
Jainsim 'right faith, right knowledge and right action'. According to Jain
teachings man has a dual personality, material and spiritual. The second
important feature of Jain teaching is 'that all objects both animate and
inanimate have souls with different degrees of consciousness. Jainism soon made
progress flourished in the Upper
Ganges Valley India and Jainism remained confined within the
boundaries of India Magadha Northern India belong to
this faith. These Jains have also played an important part in the history of
civilization of Southern India where both in
the Tamil and the Kanarese language they produced wonderful literature. The
doctrine of no injury to a living being had a great influence on the society.
The Great Chandergupta Maurya was a Jain and he patronized the sect. In later
life when the dominions of the Mauryan Emperor were struck by famine he
abdicated his throne. He retired in the South with Bhadra Bhan the chief
minister of the Jaina community and starved himself to death as a Jain Bhikshu
in Karnata. Those of them who were left behind continued their existence under
the leadership of Sathulbhadra in Magadha
Sathulbhadra knew the old Jain texts which comprised the fourteen
Purvas. The saint called a meeting- at Patliputra to compile the sacred
scriptures before they were lost. They were arranged in twelve Angas. There are
only eleven Angas left.
The Great Schism: When BhadraBhan returned to the North he found that
corruption had set in among the Jains in his absence. The Magadha Jains had
adopted the custom of wearing white clothes, and took the twelve Angas as their
authentic sacred scripture. Both these positions were disputed by the followers
of Bhadrabhan and this led to the great schism in Jain community. The Digambars
are in favour of going about completely naked while the Swetambars have taken
to wearing of white robes.
Tirathankars are larger in numbers. The temples of the order are mostly
to be found in beautiful hills and are known for the exquisite designs, rich
decorations and the representation of various Jinas with their particular
deities such as the ox, the ape, the fish etc.
Jainism was a protest against Brahmin domination and it substituted
Karam Marag (practical rule of life) for Gryan Marag (abstract attainment of
the right knowledge). All the three faiths desired freedom from earthly
bondage. The Hindus have never sought converts and they have no definite
organization like the Sang-ha for such purposes. Buddhism is a congregational
faith as is Jainism. Jainism is known for its intense regard for animal life.
The theories of rebirth and Karma and toleration have also been derieved from Buddhism
and Brahaminism.
The Jainism attacked the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans and the
institution of caste system. It made wider claims to universality as against
Hinduism. Jainism has distinct saints and distinct scriptures and there are
basic differences when compared to Buddhism and Hinduism. They commend
starvation and suicide The Jains have many things in common with the Hindus
while Buddhism ventured on an independent path. In ceremonial purifications,
marriage and caste matters the Jains follow the Brahmans. As a matter of fact
Jainism is a compromise between Brahmincal Hinduism and Arid Buddhism. Jainism
could not flourish because it was only a protest and not a full fledged revolt,
which attracted all discontented, elements to its side. Moreover, it has the
peculiarity that it never extended its influence beyond India
Later when Hinduism revived it attacked only the more serious of the
rivals i.e., Buddhism, while Jainism escaped unhurt. Moreover, the Hindus and
later on the Muslim invaders destroyed Buddhist influence and prestige in the
North and East of India while the Jains who had shifted their centre of
activity to Rajputana and Gujrat, and the South of India were left undisturbed.
The Hindus never dreaded Jainism because it was only a by product of
Hinduism.
In reference to the history of Jainism, a renowned historian Dr. A.N.
Sinha in the Book ''History of India- Ancient and Medieval'' says that: In the
history of the religious tradition of India, Jainism occupies a place of immense
eminence, not because it is still a living faith of nearly two millions people
of India but because of the fact that it has a great impact on Indian thought
and culture, Its special contribution to the cultural heritage of India is the
doctrine of ahimsa or no-injury to any living being. It received highest
appreciation from Mahatma Gandhi for its application in social and political
life. It is possible that Mahatama Gandhi's mother was the follower of Jainism.
Right from the ancient times to the present day's Anuvrata Movement led by a
great Jaina saint Acarya Sri Tulsi, Jainism has always been playing a dynamic
role in the social and cultural activities of India
Jains wrote excellent poetry. They wrote interesting folk tales,
Puranas, astronomy and mathematics, besides their master-pieces on logic and
metaphysics. Their sacred literature, known as Agamic literature is a vast
treasure-house of the social and cultural life of ancient times. In the field
of art and architecture their achievements are remarkable. Numerous stupas with
beautiful carved railings and gateways, cave pillars and marble temples and
magnificent statues are the excellent specimens of the their great contribution
to culture. These invaluable
contributions and achievements of the Jainas, which have enriched the
thought process and culture of the country have made them a significant part of
the society. Syed Qasim Mehmood in his valuable Urdu Islamic Encyclopedia ,
writes that some of the Jain temples are rare example of India Mount Abu in the Gujrat Province of India which is graded
as one of the seven wonders of India India
Jains did not accept God as Creator of the universe and dispenser of
pleasures and pains. They believed that all potentialities are inherent in man.
Man is latently divine and has the capacity to uplift himself to divinity and
to rise to the highest stage of spiritual development. They did not have desire
for long life, good food and drink, wealth, power, and heroic progeny which
were the ideals of human life preached by the Vedic priests. Instead they
believed in renunciation and abandonment of all wordly pleasures.
The tradition, of Sramanas and Munis has a long history even older than
the Vedic Hindu religion. Some fragments of the Sramanic or ascetic cult can
also be traced back to the Harappan age. The im-prints on some seals of that
period exhibiting nude ascetics in yogic posture remind us of this sect. Even
the earliest Vedic literature refers to Munis, yatis and vratyas who were not
other than the ascetic sages. The Sramanic or ascetic tradition has pre-Vedic
and pre-Aryan origin, which is different from the Brahman tradition of the
Hindu religion. Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivikism and even the Samkhya system of
thought represent this Sramanic tradition.
It is difficult to date the origin of Jainas, however, the founder of
the faith was Rsabha, the first in the list of the twenty-four tirthankaras. He
is regarded as the first man with whom the history of human civilization
starts. In Jaina texts we find some mythological legends associated with his
life-history. Besides Visnu and the Bhagavata Puranas also give information
about him which tally with those recorded in Jaina texts. Parsvanatha and
Vardhamana Mahavira, are regarded as historical characters.
PARSVANATHA:
Lord Parsvanatha, the twenty third trirthankara lived in the eighth
centuryB.C. He preceded Lord Mahavira by 250 years. He was born in Varanasi
1. No-injury to any living being (ahimsa),
2. Not to speak what is not true (Sunrta)
3. Not to take what is not given (asteya) and
4. Not to be attached to worldly possessions (aparigraha).
To the above vows of restraint, Lord Mahavira added chastity
{brahmacarya) making the number of vows five (pancavtrata). Lord Parsvanatha
attained his final liberation or parinirvana in about 770 B.C. at the age of
one hundred years on the summit of Mount
Sammeta in Bihar ,
now known as Parasanatha Hills.
VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA:
Lord Mahavira was the twenty-fourth tirthankara, but according to the
Jaina faith he cannot be regarded as the last tirthankara for all time to come,
since the succession of tirthankaras does not come to an end with him. Lord.
Mahavira attained parinirvana in 527 B.C., 250 years after the demise of Lord
Parsvanatha. Many legends about his life can be gathered, which scattered in
the texts. He was called Mahavira or Viranatha, because he had infinite courage
and power. As a child he brought under control a powerful serpent. He was also
able to tame a mad and furious elephant. In the Acaranga sutra it is mentioned
that his parents called him Vardhamana, since his birth brought opulence to his
family. Several epithets, like Jina, Siddha, Arhat is given to him, which has
the same meaning that is spiritual perfection.
Vardhamana Mahavira was born in Kundagrama, now known as Vasukunda, in North Bihar . In the Ardhamagdhi literature he is
mentioned as Vesaliya because he belonged to Vaisali. His father was
Siddhartha, a very rich Ksatriya belonging to Kasyapa gotra. His mother was
Trisala or Priyakarini She was either the daughter or the sister of King Cetaka
of Vaisali. His mother had fourteen dreams that her son either would be a king
or a saint. Mahavira was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Priyadarsana or
Anavadya who was married to Jamali, However the Digambaras maintain that the
Lord was never married to anyone. Though he was brought up and educated in such
environment as was prevalent in the aristocratic Ksatriya families of that
time, from his early childhood he was totally absorbed in the quest of the
highest spiritual knowledge. He did not wish to hurt the feelings of his
parents by renouncing his home. Therefore, after the death of his parents and
with the consent of his elder brother he left home and became an ascetic at the
age of thirty (the Digambaras claim that Vardhamana Mahavira's parents were
alive white he renounced his household life, and that his parents persuaded him
not to; but ultimately gave their consent seeing his strong determination.
After relinquishing his palatial abode, he first went to
Jnatrkhandavana, near Kundagrama. He pulled out his hair with his hands and
stripped himself of his princely dresses and ornaments. He fasted for
two-and-a-half days and was absorbed in deep meditation for several days. After
staying there for sometime he started wandering from one place to another as a
homeless ascetic. He generally passed his nights in the groves or forests, in
cemeteries, in abandoned houses, in workshops or in assembling places. Only
once a day did he would visit a town or a village to accept food offered to
him, in accordance with the rules of his vows. In the course of his strict
austere practices he even passed several days without food and water, and spent
his time in uninterrupted meditation. He never took shelter under a tree or a
roof, whether it was biting cold or scorching heat. Sometimes insects and wild
animals attacked him, but he bore all this with patience. People even struck
him with sticks, fists and lances but he tolerated these patiently and
silently. For months he would observe silence and plunged into deep meditation.
Lord Mahavira practised austerity and penances for twelve years in quest
for the highest spiritual wisdom and perfection. One day while meditating under
a Sala tree he attained kevalajnana, the highest form of knowledge. This Sala
tree was in the courtyard of one Samaga‘s house in Jrmbhikagrama on the bank of
Rjuvaluka River. Mahavira comprehended the nature of life and the world, the
cause of bondage and the way to liberation. He realized the truth that the
essential principle of life is the jiva-tattva or the self which is eternal.
Spiritual Teachings:
The self has the capacity to know it and others as its basic
characteristic is consciousness. But it is always found associated with matter,
accommodated in the body, assuming various forms of life and wandering through
different lives in the process of transmigration.
2. Karma or action is the tie which binds the self to the body.
3. Perverted knowledge, i.e. ignorance of truth (mithyatva or avidya)
causes the rise of passions (kasayas) which are sticky substances where karmic
particles stick. The passions which are anger (krodha) greed (lobha), pride
(mana), and deceitfulness (maya) are the causes of the attraction of the inflow
(asrava) of karmic particles towards the self. When these particles enter into
the soul and bind it, bondage (bandha) takes place. By the practice of right
knowledge (samyag-jnana), right faith (samyag darsana) and right conduct
(samyak-carita), the stoppage (samvara) of the inflow of karmic particles is
possible. And by the practice of austere penances (tapas) wearing out or
exhaustion (nirjara) of the accumulated karmic particles is possible. After the
last karmic particles being worn out and destroyed, the permanent bondage of
the self with body is loosened, and the self shines in its intrinsic nature of
infinite knowledge (anantajnana), infinite faith (anantadarsana), infinite
bliss (anantasukha) and infinite power (anantayirya), and become liberated
(mukta).
After attaining the highest stage of spiritual perfection, Lord Mahavira
gave his first religious sermons to the people at Rajagrha, the capital of Magadha at that time, on mount Vipulacala North
India preaching his sermons. The list of the names of the places
where he spent one or more rainy seasons (caturmasa) has been given in the
Kalpasutra. He spent the first rainy season in Asthikagrama, the next three
rainy seasons in Campa and Prsticampa, twelve in Vaisali and Vanijyagrama,
fourteen in Rajagrha and Nalanda, six in Mithuta, two in Bhadraka, one in
Alabhika, one in Pramtabhumi, one in Sravasti and the last one in Pava.
Lord Buddha a contemporary of Lord Mahavira, also visited some of the
places mentioned above at the same time when Lord Mahavira was staying there,
but they never met each other. However, there were occasions when some of their
followers worked as intermediaries in the course of the philosophical
discussions. It is remarkable that Lord Buddha has never been mentioned in the
entire Agamic literature of the Jainas, though the early Buddhist records at
several places mention Nirgrantha Jnatrputra (Nigantha Nataputta) who was no
other than Lord Mahavira, because he was also known as Jnatrputra being a
descendent of Jnatr clan. From the Samagamasutta of the Majjhima-nikaya, it
appears that Lord Mahavira passed away during the life-time of Buddha.
Lord Mahavira attained the final emancipation (parinirvana) at the age
of 72 at Pava. And thus for thirty years since he got the highest realization
(kevalajnana) after twelve years of his austere penances he preached the
doctrine of non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), no-stealing (asteya),
chastity (brahmacarya) and no-attachment (aparigraha), which was based on the
caturyama discipline of his predecessor Lord Parsvanatha. That is why Lord
Mahavira is not regarded as the founder of the faith by the Jainas, but is
considered as a reformer or rejuvenator of the faith which was already in
existence and had a long tradition.
Mahavira's Successors:
Lord Mahavira possessed a unique power of organization. By his wonderful
personality and organizational skill, he attracted a large number of people,
both men and women, to be his disciples. From them, therefore, grew the four
orders (sangha) of his community, viz, monks, nuns, laymen and lay women,
Organization:
The chiefs were the fourteen thousand monks placed under the charge of
Indrabhuti Gautama. The women followers, some thirtysix thousand, actually
renounced the world and became nuns, and were led by Candana. Third order
consisted of devout laymen or sravakas, numbering about one hundred and fifty
nine thousand with Sankha Sataka as their head. The fourth order consisted of
devout laywomen or sravikas, numbering about three hundred and fifty eight
thousand, with Sulasa and Revati as their heads. These laymen and laywomen did
not actually renounce the world, but they at least observed the five vows
(vratas) partially. By forming these two orders of he showed a remarkable
genius for organization. This grass root support provided firm roots to his
teachings during his life time.
It is believed that the teachings of Lord Mahavira were preserved in the
beginning by his principal disciples (ganadharas) and later on by the tradition
of learned teachers (acaryas}. It is mentioned that Lord Mahavira himself
assigned his eleven learned disciples the status of ganadhara. They were
Indrabhuti Gautama, Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Vyakta, Sudhar-masvami, Manditaputra,
Mauryaputra, Akampita, Acala bhrata, Metarya, and Prabhasvami. Out of these
eleven ganadharas, only two--Indrabhuti Gautama and, Sudharmasvami survived
Lord Mahavira. Jambusvami was the learned disciple of Sudharmasvami. He is
regarded as the last 'omniscient' by the Jainas. He attained his final emancipation
sixty four years after the parinirvana of Lord Mahavira. In the present
Svetambara Agamas generally Sudharmasvami is seen narrating the discourses of
Lord Mahavira to Jambusvami which shows that he was the most learned disciple
of Sudharmasvami. After Jambusvami there had been a long tradition of acaryas
who were responsible for the reservation and propagation of the teachings of
Lord Mahavira. Among those learned acaryas the names of Bhadrabahusvami and
Sthulabhadra are important. It is said that Bhadrabahu was the only living
person of his time who had knowledge of all the fourteen Purvas. But with the
lapse of time only ten Purvas were preserved by his successors. Sthulabhadra
learnt only the ten Purvas along with their meanings and four Purvas without
the meanings from Bhadrabahu who was residing in Nepal
Digambars believe that women cannot attain moksha in the same birth,
while Svetambars believe that women may attain liberation and that Mallinath, a
Tirthankar, was a woman. The difference is because Digambar asceticism requires
nudity. As nudity is not practical for women, it follows that without it they
cannot attain moksha. This is based on the belief that women cannot reach
perfect purity (yathakhyata), "Their lack of clothes can, therefore, be a
hindrance to their leading a holy life". The earliest record of this
belief is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara mendicant
Kundakunda (c. second century A.D. ).
Preaching and Texts:
The preachings of Lord Mahavira were handed down to the acaryas who
preserved the tradition and the faith. Later on many acaryas wrote several
commentaries and sub- commentaries on the scriptural texts of the canon.
Numerous original works on Jaina philosophy, logic, epistemology, and even
grammars and lexicons were written by them. Umasvami, Kundakunda, Siddhasena
Divakara, Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana, Jinadasa Mahattara, Haribhadra Suri,
Silankacarya, Abhayadeva Suri, Hemacandracarya, were the greatest acaryas who
continued the study of Jaina philosophy and thought for several centuries.
Dissension, Sects and Sub-Divisions of Sects:
The signs of internal dissension in the Jaina monastic order or sangha
started appearing during the life time of Lord Mahavira. His two disciples,
Jamali who was also his son-in-law and Gosala, created a faction in the Jaina
monastic order or sangha. But the two major divisions among the followers of
this faith, viz. Digambara and Svetambara, clearly appeared after the first
convention of Pataliputra which was convened in the 4th century B.C. It is said
that during the time of Candragupta Maurya a great famine broke out in Magadha South India .
Bhadrabahu put his senior most disciple Sthulabhadra in charge of those monks
who remained in Magadha Magadha
from South India , they did not appreciate the
rearrangement of the ten Purvas into Angas. They did not even agree to
recognize those Angas as the authentic collection of the original teachings of
Lord Mahavira. Moreover, after the convention some monks started wearing white
clothes instead of wandering as naked ascetics, while others condemned them
seriously. Later on these two groups of monks developed as independent Sects.
The naked ascetics were known as the Digambara Sect, while the monks who wore
white clothes were called the Svetambaras. These two were the most important
Sects of Jainism and even today the followers of both these schools are found.
But there is no major difference between them regarding the basic and
fundamental doctrines except some minor details of faith and practice, as the
Digambaras believe that:
i. The monks should strictly follow the laws of asceticism;
ii. One who has attained the stage of perfect knowledge or kevalajnana
needs no food to sustain his life;
iii. Women cannot attain the stage of moksa or liberation;
iv. Vardhainana Mahavira never married; and
v. The original scriptures are now no more extant. Later on these two
sects were also divided into several subdivisions.
Important sub-divisions of the Digambara Sect are: Dravidasangha,
Kasthasangha, Mathurasangha, Yapaniya-Sangha, Terapantha, Bisapantha,
Samaiyapantha and Gumanapantha. All these schools originated under the
influences of some acaryas or senior monks, which developed from the fifth
century A.D. to the eighteenth century A.D.
The major sub-divisions of the Svetamabara Sect are: Sthanakavasi and
Terapantha.
These two Sects especially discarded idol-worship and temples. Instead
of going to and residing there in the Jaina temples, Sthanakavasi monks built
up sthanakas or abodes to live. The Sthanakavasi Sect originated from the Lonka
Sect which flourished in the fifteenth century A.D. under the patronage of
Lonkasaha. In the eighteenth century A.D. Terapantha a new sect emerged from
the Sthanakavasi sect, which was started by Acarya Bhikhanji. Unlike the
Sthanakavasi monks, the Terapantha monks do not stay in the sthdnakas or
abodes. They also do not believe in idol-worship. The greatest exponent of the
Terapantha sect was Acarya Tulasi.
Development:
During the life-time of Lord Mahavira the Jaina faith had acquired great
popularity in Northern India . Bimbisara, the
King of Magadha and his son, Ajatasatru, as the Jainas claim, had embraced
Jainism. In the Buddhist literature they have been mentioned as patrons of the
Buddhist faith. However, it seems proper to accept that both of them were
sympathetic to both Buddhism and Jainism.
From the Kharavela inscriptions it appears that King Nanda of Magadha Magadha
According to Jaina tradition Candragupta Maurya was greatly influenced
by a learned Jaina monk named Bhadrabahu. He even abdicated his throne and went
to the southern parts of India South India .
Later South India became a great centre
of Jaina learning, and many scholars of this region contributed to the
discipline of Jainism by writing invaluable works on metaphysics and logic.
Several kings even became the champions of this faith and built Jaina
temples. Especially in the time of the Rastrakuta Kings this faith flourished .
Jainism also went to the remote west of India Gujarat . In this very convention all the
sacred Jaina scriptures were given the final shape.
Syad Qasim Mehmood writes in Islamic Encyclopedia that Jains were so
careful of the doctrine of Ahimsa (or Ahinsa) that while walking they held a
duster to clean the path so not even a smallest living creature may be killed.
Heaven and Hell:
There is an explicit concept of paradise or Heaven and Hell in Jain
religious texts. They say there are seven hells and twenty six heavens one
above the other. The soul carries weight. When a person commits a sin, the soul
gets heavier and falls into hell.
Observances:
Mr. K.C. Sogani in his article'' Jaina Faith and Morals'' in the book''
Jainism'' writes:
Guided by the incentives to spiritual life, the aspirant devotes his
energies to meditation, devotion and svadhyaya along with other spiritual
exercises. Before taking up these spiritual practices, he resorts to moral
discipline in the form of anuvratas and mahavratas. Without moral observances,
the spiritual practices cannot be sustained. According to the Jaina faith,
moral and spiritual discipline finds their completion in the life of the muni,
since the life of the householder affords only partial ground for them. The
moral and spiritual practices of the muni culminate in the attainment of the
religious goal of arhathood and siddhahood.
Spiritual Exercises: The muni performs many types of spiritual
exercises, such as (a) guptis and samitis, (b) control of the five senses, (c)
six fold essentials, and (d) tapas.
a) The ideal for a muni is to control his physical, mental and vocal
activities and to put himself in the atmanic experience. Such a sublime
endeavor is termed gupti. The observance of carefulness in moving, speaking,
taking food, keeping and receiving things, evacuating bowels, etc. is termed samiti.
It may be noted here that the muni accepts food not for increasing strength,
enhancing longevity, gratifying relish, and attaining bright look, but
performing spiritual study, pursuing self-control and meditation.
b) It is a fact that attachment to senses and sensuous pleasures creates
enormous difficulties in the spiritual path. Hence a muni controls the five
senses from their attachment to colour, sound, smell, taste and touch. A muni
should observe proper discipline. The sense of sight should neither be
attracted by beauty nor repulsed by the ugliness of things; the sense of
hearing should not be led away by any tune whatsoever; the sense of smell
should not be seduced by the fragrance of things; the sense of taste should not
be overcome by different kinds of juices, and lastly the sense of touch should
not be led astray by different kinds of touch.
c) A muni performs six essentials. (i) Samayika : He develops a state of
mind in the midst of life and death, loss and gain, pleasant and unpleasant
events, friends and foes, pleasure and pain, (ii) Vandana : He offers
salutations to Arhanta and Siddha Pratimas and to those who excel in spiritual
attainments, (iii) Stuti : He contemplates on the divine characteristics of the
twenty-four tirthnkaras. (iv) Pratikramana : He purifies the faults in
spiritual living by resorting to self-criticism, and confession in the presence
of his guru, (v) Pratyakhyana : It implies the determination of the muni to
renounce in future all that is inconsistent with his spiritual pursuit.
Pratikramana has retrospective reference, while pratyakhyana has prospective
one. (vi) Kayotsarga : In it the muni practices a formal no-attachment to the
body for a prescribed period of time.
d) Tapa : He eradicates desires from the texture of self. It is the real
enemy of self. Consequently, its extirpation is of paramount importance. The
tapas are of two kinds:
i) external and ii) internal
i.
External austerities (tapas) are
of six kinds.1. Anasana : It means fasting for a limited period of time, such
as for one day, two days, etc.2. Avamaudaya : It means to take less than the
normal quantity of food each day. 3. Vrttiparisamkhyana : It means the
pre-determination of a muni regarding the number of houses to be visited, the
particular manner of taking food, the specific type of food, the giver or
specific qualification,-, when he sets out to get food. If the things conform
to his norm, he would accept food; otherwise he would go without it for that
day.4. Rasaparityaga : It implies the abstinence from one or more articles of
food, milk, curd, ghee, oil, sugar and salt; and from one or more kinds of
tastes, bitter, astringent, sour and sweet,5. Viviktasa-yyasana : It means that
a muni abandons the dwellings. 6. Kayaklesa : In it the body is put to certain
discomforts through uneasy and stern postures. These external austerities do
not aim at the flagellation of the body, but contribute towards the inner
advancement of a muni.
ii.
The internal austerities are also
of six kinds. 1. Prayascitta : When a muni has committed certain
transgressions, he resorts to repentance for the wrong done in order to purify
himself. That is the real prayascitta wherein the commission of fault in
spiritual life is not repeated, 2. Vinaya : It means the expression of humbleness
towards the spiritually superior. A muni is not conceited in his attainments,
and behaves modestly with all those who have attained spiritual heights. 3.
Vaiyavttya : It means the rendering of service to other munis through suitable
means when they are overwhelmed by disease, affliction and any disturbance
whatsoever, 4. Vyutsarga : It implies the relinquishment of internal and
external parigraha. 5. Svadhyaya : The study of scriptures is svadhyaya. Its
purpose is to enrich the intellect, to refine moral and spiritual efforts, to
infuse detachment and fear from mundance miseries, and to purify defects that
may occur when one pursues the divine path. For those who are fickle-minded and
intellectually unsteady, nothing is so potent to end such a state of mind as
the pursuance of svadhyaya. Without the acquisition of scriptural knowledge,
there is always a danger of being led astray from the virtuous path .The man
with svadhyaya
saves himself from being led astray, just
as the needle with thread is not lost. 6. Dhyana : It represents the
concentration of mind on a particular object. The object of concentration may
be profane or holy in character. The mind may concentrate either on the
debasing object or on the object which is elevating. The former is aprasasta-dhyana
and the latter is prasasta. In dealing with dhyana as tapa, we are concerned
with the prasasta of dhyana, since it is only relevant to spiritual
realization. It is the indispensable, integral constituent of right conduct,
and consequently it is directly related to the actualization of the divine
potentialities. It is the clear and single road by which the aspirant can move
straight to the Supreme good. All the disciplinary observances find their
culmination in dhyana. The practice of the fourfold virtue of maitri
(friendship with all creatures), pramoda (appreciation of the merits of
others), karuna, (compassion for those who are in trouble) and madhyastha
(indifference to those who are irrational), are the pre-requisite conditions of
dhyana. The aspirants should avoid those places which are inhabited by the
vicious, hypocrites, gamblers, drunkards, harlots and the like, and should
choose a bank of river, an island, a cave, a summit of a mountain and other
places of seclusion for spiritual concentration. For him whose mind is
immaculate, stable and detached every posture every place and every time is fit
for meditation. Many places in the body have been enumerated for mental
concentration, namely, the two eyes, two ears, the foremost point of the nose,
the forehead, the place between the two eye-brows etc. Prasasta-dhyana is of
two types, namely, dharma and sukla. The best kind of dharma-dhyana is to
meditate upon the self by fixing one's mind in it after renouncing all other
thoughts. After dharma-dhyana, sukla-dhyana is practiced. In it the mind
shortens its field of concentration to the effect that the muni meditates upon
one substance, an atom, and the like. In consequence, the muni gains infinite
knowledge, bliss and energy.
iii.
Devotion implies sublime affection
towards the perfected souls (arhat and siddha) or towards those who are much
advanced on the path of divine realization. The Jaina devotional texts regard
devotion as of great significance. Vadiraja says that in spite of deep intellectual
attainments and great moral accomplishments, the aspirant cannot achieve
liberation without profound devotion. Samantabhadra points out that just as
iron is turned into gold by a mere touch of the parasa stone, so also the
devotee is transformed into an effulgent personality, and what he speaks is
regarded as of great importance. Is devotion possible in Jainism? One may say
that devotion in Jainism is a contradiction in terms, since devotion conceives
the existence of a being who can actively respond to the aspirations of the
devotee, and in Jainism the conception of such a being is not there. The reply
is that in Jainism arhat and siddha are the objects of devotion. They are not
affected by devotion and remain quite indifferent to human woes. By the devotion
towards the arhat or the siddha our thoughts and emotions are purified. A great
heap of punya is deposited in the self by devotion resulting in spiritual
advancement. Those who are devoted to the siddhas and arhants are eventually
elevated.
Concept of Arhat and Siddha : By performing spiritual exercises, an
aspirant or a muni attains to spiritual perfection. He earns the title of Arhat
or Arhanta. Arhat are of two types— tirthankara and non-tirthankara. The
distinction between the two is that the former is capable of preaching and
propagating religious doctrines in order to guide the mundane souls and his
sermons are properly worded by ganadharas, while the latter is not a preacher
of religious principles, but enjoys the spiritual experience. The Acaranga
tells us that an Arhanta is established in truth in all directions. He is
atmasamahita (established in the atman). He has freed himself from anger,
pride, death, greed, hatred, birth and death. In the state of arhathood there
are neither sense, nor is there any calamity, nor astonishment, nor sleep, nor
desire, nor hunger; there is only nirvana. Secondly, arhantas lead a life of
super moralist but not of a moralist. He is beyond the category of virtue and
vice, good and evil, punya and papa, yet he may be pronounced the most virtuous
soul, though the pursuit of virtuous life cannot bind him to mundane cycle of
birth and death. Thirdly, just as a mother educates her child for his benefit
and a physician cures patients, so also the arhat instructs humanity for its
prosperity. He has enough spiritual powers to abrogate the miseries of
tormented humanity.His presence is enlightening. Fourthly with inner
experiences, the conquest over the mind, the senses, and the passions becomes
natural to Arhat. By virtue of his self-realization, he has transcended the
dualities of friends and enemies, pleasure and pain, praise and censure, life
and death, clay and gold. Fifth, the Acaranga tells us that the unwise sleep,
the sages always stay awake. Samantabhadra says that being impelled by the
desire to live and enjoy, the ordinary persons work hard in the day and get
tired they sleep at night, but the mystic keep awake day and night in the
process of self-realization without being overwhelmed by indolence and inertia.
Sixth, the Arhanta has attained super sensuous knowledge, infinite potency and
unique resplendence. He is omniscient. He neither accepts nor abandons the
external objectivity, but only witnesses the world just as the eyes see the
objects of sight. Along with omniscience he experiences infinite bliss.
Seventh, the spiritual experience of Arhat is ineffable and transcends all the
similes of the world. Thus the essence of Arhat cannot be completely described
in rational terms. Form this point of view the Arhat is the 'wholly other'. At
best, the Arhat can be described by negative expressions. The Acaranga tells us
that the Arhat is neither big nor small, he is neither black nor blue, etc., he
is neither cold nor hot, he is neither feminine nor masculine, he perceives, he
knows but there is no analogy.
Considered from the perspective of spiritual realization, Arhat and
Siddha stand at par. The difference is that the former enjoys embodied
liberation and the latter disembodied one. Arhat is the perfect Guru, delivering
sermons for general beneficence and is also called perfect Deva on account of
the complete actualization of the divinity potential in himself. In Arhat there
is the consistent identification of Devatva and Gurutva, of the inward
experience and the outward expression. In Siddhas there is only the Devatva.
This does not imply that Siddha is inferior in any way, but simply the
glorification of Arhat as the supreme Guru.
Morals:
As we have said, the performance of spiritual exercises presupposes the
practice of morals. Without moral observances spiritual progress is
inconceivable. The conviction of Jaina is that for the man who is spiritually
awakened, morality serves as a means to spiritual living, but for the ordinary
man, it is an end in itself. The realm of morality is auspicious psychical
states resulting in auspicious activities. The obstacles to the achievement of
morals are inauspicious activities emanating from inauspicious psychical
states. Thus in order to stamp out the inauspicious physical states from the
texture of self, the individual must abstain himself from violence, falsehood,
theft, unchastely behavior and acquisitions. This negative process of purifying
the self necessarily requires the pursuance of the positive process of
non-violence (ahimsa), truthfulness (satya), not taking what doesn‘t belong to
you (asteya), chastity (brahmacarya) and non-acquisition (aparigraha). These
five virtues replace the five vices. It may be noted here that ahimsa is the
central and fundamental of these virtues the rest are regarded as the means for
sustenance. When the replacement of vices by virtues is complete, we observe
complete morality (sakala) and when it is partial, we have partial morality
(vikala). He who observes complete morality is called a Muni, while he who
observes partial morality is called a householder. The life of Anuvratas
represents partial morality of the householder, whereas the life of Mahdvratas
represents complete morality of the Muni. The Anuvratas and the Mahavratas are
the ways of overcoming the vices of himsa, steya, asatya, abrahmacarya and
parigraha.
Himsa may be defined as the committing of injury to the physical and
psychical aspects of oneself and others through the operation of
passion-infected activities of mind, body and speech. This means that if, in
spite of the dispassionate activities of mind, body and speech any living being
is injured, it cannot be called himsa, since the infecting element of passion
is missing. On the contrary, even if the activities of mind, body and speech
are passion-infected, and no living being is oppressed, then the actions are
called himsa. Here though the soul has not injured others, yet it has injured
itself by defiling its own natural constitution. Thus we may say that it is
only on the basis of the internal state of mind that the acts of himsa and
ahimsa are to be judged. This should not be taken to understand that external
behaviour is of no significance since in human life the outward commission of
himsa without the pursuance of internal corruption cannot be vindicated. He who
exclusively emphasizes the internal at the expense of the external forgets the
significance of outward behavior. Thus both the internal and external aspects
should occupy their due places.
Himsa is of two kinds—intentional and non-intentional. The latter has
again been divided into udyami, arambhi and virodhi. Intentional himsa implies
the voluntary commitment of himsa by one's own self along with the provocation
and endorsement of the acts of himsa. Besides, himsa which is unavoidably
committed by reason of one's own profession, by the performance of domestic
activities, and by defending oneself, one's neighbour, one's country, one's
belonging, and the like from one's foes is called udyami, arambhi and virodhi
himsa respectively..
Ahimsa (Anuvrata-Mahavrata): Now the householder is incapable of turning
away completely from himsa, hence he should keep himself away from the
intentional commission of himsa of the two-sensed to five-sensed beings, himsa
owing to profession, domestic activities, and defensive measures cannot be
counteracted by him. Thus he commits non-intentional injury to jivas, namely,
the vegetable-bodied, the air-bodied, the fire-bodied, etc. Even in the realm
of one-sensed jivas and in the realm of non-intentional injury he should manage
to confine his operations as may affect the life and existence of a very
limited number of jivas. The point to note is that of reducing the amount of
injury that is apt to be caused and not that of total relinquishment which is
not possible without endangering the survival of man. If we reflect a little,
we shall find that man is subject to himsa by the very condition of his
existence. Yet instead of aggravating the natural weight of himsa by falling
foul upon one another and by our cruel treatment of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms we should endeavor to reduce this general curse to the possible. The
observer of ahmsanuvrata should avoid gambling, hunting, drinking, and eating
meat.
The implications of ahimsanuvrata in solving social, national and
international problems are that the principle of mutual understanding should be
adhered to. Life should be elevated from the plane of force to that of reason,
persuasion, accommodation, tolerance and mutual service. The maintenance of
universal peace and the promotion of human welfare can only be affected by
suffusing worlds' atmosphere with the spirit of ahimsa. War is to be
discouraged, exploitation is to be condemned. Besides, a social consciousness
is to be developed against the use of wine and the slaughtering of animals.
The muni extends active friendship to all living beings from the
one-sensed to the five-sensed without any exception, and consequently all forms
of intentional himsa are shunned and the question of udyami, arambhi, and
virodhi himsa does not arise in his case. The muni is a world citizen. He,
therefore, draws the attention of men to the inefficacy of himsa for solving
social, national and international disputes. He himself is the embodiment of
ahimsa and exhorts others to develop reverence for life as such.
Satya (Anuvrata-Mahavrata) : Let us begin with the meaning of falsehood.
It implies the making of wrong and improper statement by one who is overwhelmed
by passions such as anger, greed, conceit, deceit and the like. Falsehood is of
four kinds. The first falsehood refers to the affirmation of the existent as
non-existent, the second refers to the declaration of the non-existent as
existent, the third refers to the representation of the existing nature of
things as different from what they are, and the fourth is of speech which is
disagreeable to others. The Muni avoids all these four forms of falsehood, and
therefore, he is said to observe satya-mahavrata. But the householder has to
speak harsh, unpleasant words in the course of running the household and doing
professional management therefore he observes satyanuvrata. The observer of
satyanuvrata use words which are soothing and gentle. If any speech causes
offence it should be withheld. Ultimately the criterion of satya and asatya is
ahimsa and himsa respectively. Thus satya speech should lead to ahimsa.
Asteya (Anuvrata-Mahavrata): Steya means the taking of things under the
constraint of passion without their being given by the owner. It may be noted here
that things constitute the external pranas of a man and he who thieves and
plunders them is said to deprive a man of his pranas. This is not other than
himsa. The muni who observes mahavrata does not take anything whatsoever
without the permission of others, but the householder uses such things freely
as are of common use without their being given, such as water from the well.
Thus he is observing asteyanuvrata. It may be noted here that the Muni does not
use even the common things without their being given by others. The householder
does neither take those things which are forgotten and dropped by others nor
give them to any one else. Purchasing of costly things at reduced prices is
stealing, which is probably due to the fact that one may sell a thing after
getting it by improper methods. Adulteration, abetment of theft, receiving
stolen property, use of false weights and measures, smuggling come under
stealing.
Brahmacarya (Anuvrata-Mahdvrata) : Sex-passion is abrahma. He who frees
himself completely from sexual inclination is observing brahmacarya-mahavrata.
But the householder who abstains himself from the sexual contacts with all
other women except his nuptial partner is observing brahmacaryanuvrata.
Sex-passion is himsa and brahmacarya is ahimsa. The householder keeps himself
away from adultery, prostitution, unnatural methods of sexual enjoyment.
Aparigraha (Anuvrata-Mahavrata) : Attachment to things is parigraha.
Those who have a feeling of attachment to things in spite of their external
renunciation are far from aparigraha ; and those who have external things are
not free from internal attachment. Thus if one is prone to remove internal
attachment, one should correspondingly throw aside external possessions also.
Attachment is a form of himsa and those who wish to practise ahimsa should
avoid attachment. The householder is incapable of renouncing all parigraha ;
therefore he should limit the parigraha of wealth, cattle, corn, buildings,
etc. This is parigraha-parimananuvrata.
The observance of these five vows is capable of bringing about
individual as well as social progress. Thus, the Jaina faith and morals sum up
the spiritual and moral living of the individual along with the social
upliftment.
Monastic Discipline:
Mr. Mohan Lal Mehta of Punjabi University , Patiala
Ascetic Vows:
Vedic religion divides society in to four classes: The four classes
recognized by Jainism are not on the basis of birth but conduct. They are known
as Sramanas (monks), Sramanis (nuns), Sravakas (laymen) and Sravikas (laywomen).
Jainism gives freedom to all human beings to observe vows. It provides equal
opportunity to all persons to practice self-discipline according to their
capacity. The observers of vows are divided into two broad categories: ascetics
and lay-votaries. The ascetic is variously known as Sramana, Bhiksu,
Nir-grantha, Muni, Sadhu, Yati, Anagara, Mahavratin, Sarva virata, etc. The
lay-votary is differently designated as Sravaka, Upasaka, Sagara, Anuvratin,
etc. Monks and nuns constitute the category of ascetics, and laymen and
laywomen form that of lay-votaries.
The ascetic is required to observe five great vows. He is also enjoined
to practice the sixth vow of abstention from taking food and drink after sunset
(Dasavaikalika-sutra). The ascetic is forbidden to commit any sin, i.e.
violence etc. in any form. He is enjoined upon to refrain from all the sinful
activities—subtle and gross, physical, vocal and mental. He neither commits a
sin himself, nor causes others to commit it, nor approves of its committal by
others.
Copulation comprises the activity of man and woman promoted by sexual
desire. The vow of non-copulation (maithuna-tiramana-vrata) forbids the ascetic
to embrace man or women or any other creature out of sexual urge. Two reasons
are generally advanced for the condemnation of carnal contact. In a moral
sense, the peace of mind is disturbed by the increase of the passions of love
and hate. In a physical sense, the sexual act is always accompanied by
violence, as it is maintained that there are always present in the sexual organ
of a woman numerous minute living beings of which many perish during every act
of coition.
For the sake of strengthening the vow of non-copulation, continence,
chastity or celibacy, the ascetic has to observe the following rules and the
like : renunciation of (i) listening to stories exciting attachment for women
(or men), (ii) looking at beautiful bodies of women (or men), (iii) recalling
former sexual pleasure, (iv) delicacies stimulating amorous desire, and
(v)adornment of body.
Correct Behaviour:
Monks should live in a burial place or cremation ground, in a deserted
house, below a tree, in solitude. They should live in a pure (free from
insects, etc.) place which is not crowded and where no woman lives. Nuns should
live in a pure and protected place which is not crowded and where no man lives.
The ascetic is forbidden to build house. The same holds good with the cooking
of food and drink. He should collect alms in small parts. He is enjoined to eat
not for the sake of pleasant taste but for the sustenance of life. Though
overcome by thirst, he should not drink cold water, i.e. water with life
(sacitta), but try to get distilled water, i.e. water without life (acitta). If
he suffers from cold, he should not long warmth. If he suffers from heat, he
should not long for a bath. At one time he may have no food and clothes, at
another he may have some. Under no circumstances he should complain about it.
If he falls sick or suffers any other pain or affliction, he should cheerfully
endure it. He is enjoined to travel (on foot) during winter and summer. In
rainy season he is required to stay at one place.
The ascetic as well as the lay-votary is enjoined to court voluntary
death. It is known as samlekhand, samadhimarana, or panditamarana. When there
are situations which render the observance of vows impossible and the end of
life is near, one should court voluntary death patiently. Such situations
include acute famine, incurable disease, calamity, and the like. The
performance of voluntary death begins with a progressive withdrawal of food. It
culminates in complete abstinence from food and drink. Voluntary death cannot
be called suicide, as it has no passion like anger, fear, disgust, etc. Suicide
is always committed under the sway of some kind of passion, whereas there is
complete absence of passions in voluntary death (Sarvdrthasiadhi, VII. 22).
Organization:
The acarya and the upadhyaya are the chief officers of the Jain
religious body. In addition to these two, : pravartaka, sthavira, ganin,
gandvacchedaka and ratna-dhika or ratnika. The organization of nuns has four
officers : pravartini, gandvacchedini, abhiseka and pratihari. All these
officers are subordinate to the officers of the order of monks.
The Acarya is the supreme head of certain groups of monks and nuns. He
controls and guides the groups under him. He is expected to be a man of high
academic and moral qualifications. The juniors have to take permission from him
for all the important items of monastic conduct.
The Upadhyaya is next to the acarya. His chief duty is to give proper
reading of the canons to the junior monks and nuns. Hence, such a person is
expected to be well-versed in the canonical literature. Besides the knowledge
of the scriptures, he must possess sufficient self-control and organizational
capacity.
The Pravartaka looks after the administrative routine of a particular
group. He should be a man of sufficient academic and moral qualifications.
The sthavira consists of three categories: jati-sthavira, sruta-sthavira
and paryaya-sthavira. The jati-sthavira is one who is at least sixty years,
old. The sruta-sthavira is well-versed in the Sthdnanga and Samavaydnga Sutras.
The paryaya-sthavira has at least twenty years' standing as a monk. The chief
duty of the sthavira is to impart basic instructions in monastic discipline to
the beginners (Sthananga-sutra, 159; Vyavahara-sutra, 10.15).
The Ganin is chiefly responsible for proper education of the group to
which he belongs. He is also known as Vacanacarya or Ganadhara. He is endowed
with ideal conduct and scholarship.
The Ganavacchedaka is the head of a part of the group to which he
belongs. He controls and guides the monks under his supervision.
The Ratnadhika is a senior monk. Here seniority depends upon scholarship
and conduct. A monk with a lesser seniority is designated as Avamaratnika and
that with a greater seniority is called Yatharatnika.
The organization of nuns is done under their own officers. The
Pravartini is the highest officer in the cadre. She heads a particular group of
nuns and controls and guides the group under her. She is person of high moral
standard and scholarship. She should have organizational drive and be able to
execute stern discipline. Since she heads a group (gana) of nuns, she is also
known as Ganini.
The Ganavacchedaka is the head of a part of a group. She controls and
guides the nuns under her care.
The Abhiseka is an old experienced nun just like the thavira in the
order of monks.
The Pratihari is a senior nun in respect to conduct and knowledge. She
is just like the Ratnika among monks.
Thus, the Jaina
Church
Rai Ashwini Kumar writes about the Jains Yoga and Mysticism:
The term yoga, no doubt, occurs in the Jaina Agamas, but it is not
widely used there. The later Jaina thinkers have, however, freely used the term
yoga in their works on yoga. It is only Haribhadra who defined the word yoga
for the first time in the history of Jaina thought. In all his works he defined
it in the sense of 'what leads one to emancipation'. He derived the term yoga
from the root yuj,'to bind together', 'to connect', 'union', and ‗conjunction‘.
Thus the literal meaning of the word yoga is connection. This meaning of the
term yoga is unanimously accepted and used in the post-Haribhadra literature.
According to Haribhadra, all pure religious performance is yoga inasmuch as it
connects one with moksa, J.e. lead one to maksa. Every religious and spiritual
activity is considered elegant provided it is placed in moksa. The religious
practices should be pure in all respects, viz. object, nature, and result. The
idea underlying such meaning of yoga is that the goodness of an action can be
gauged solely by its conduciveness to moksa in the long run. That action is
good which either leads towards moksa, or which does not deflect from the path
towards moksa.
Elements of Mysticism:
Mysticism can be defined as the direct experience of the communion
between man and God. In the mystical experience the individual experiences
perfection and liberation. This implies a certain metaphysical conception of
God and of the soul, and also implies further a mystic way of attaining union
of identification with God. Mysticism affirms its faith in direct intuition
which can immediately and directly apprehend the reality. The aspirants are
asked to remain indifferent to worldly things, and hence various rules of
conduct are prescribed which they must practice. Mysticism insists upon the
help and guidance of a competent guru for the revelation of truth. These are
some of the salient aspects of mysticism. We shall now see which of these
elements are found in Jainism.
The Jaina mysticism turns round two concepts: atman and paramatman. Each
soul is a potential god, i.e. parmatman. But it remains as atman only because
of karmic limitations. As soon as the various limitations created by the karmas
are removed, the atman realizes its real nature and becomes pure and perfect.
The various innate capacities of the soul find their full expression. The soul
exhibits its potential divinity. It becomes paramatman. In view of their
essential nature, the atman and the paramatman are one and the same. There is
no difference between the two. As long as the atman is under the influence of
the karmas, it remains oblivious of its true nature and is not as yet evolved
into paramatman. By breaking the karmic fetters it realizes its identity with
the paramatman. Thus paramatman represents the ultimate point of spiritual
evolution of atman. Atman to paramatman is a course of spiritual evolution; and
it is the prerogative of every awakened soul to see that it reaches the state
of paramatman. Every soul when it reaches its highest perfection becomes
paramatman. All perfect souls are divine and there is no rank among them, since
all are equal and possess the same essential attributes. Hence they, even on
attaining moksa, retain their individuality. The atman has to pass through
fourteen stages of spiritual evolution called gunasthanas in order to become
paramatman. But this identity or unity cannot be realized with the help of the
senses and the mind. The Jains categorically deny the possibility of the
apprehension of the reality through the senses and the mind, because it is the^
senses that have made the atman look outward away from the centre of reality.
Only direct intuition leads the soul to the very inwardness of reality, and
thus through this extra-sensory perception it gains back the directness of
apprehension it had lost.
Jains Art:
Mr. L.M. Joshi writes that Jain antiquities have been found from all
parts of India
The tradition of Jaina art and ritual seems to have remote connection
with the prehistoric antiquities discovered from the Indus Valley Mohenjo-daro Mohenjo-daro Indus origin. The sculptures
from Harappan sites, especially those that are of a religious character, show
that the tradition of the images is of prehistoric origin. The red-stone statue
partly mutilated, from Harappa belonging to the third millennium B.C. is
remarkably similar to the torso of a Jina found from Lohanipur in Bihar and assigned to the Mauryan age.
The Jaina literary sources affirm that a sandal-wood figure of
Jivantasvami or Mahavira in meditation prior to his renunciation had been made
during his life-time. During the age of the Mauryas the images of the Jinas may
have been in worship as can be inferred from the red-stone torso of a
Jina-figure found from Lohanipur and now preserved in the Patna Magadha Magadha
Next landmark in the development of the Jaina art is represented by a
series of rock-cut monastic halls in Barabara and Nagarjuni hills in Bihar . These so-called caves had been excavated by Asoka
and his grandson Dasaratha for the use of Ajivika monks. Makhali Gosala, the
founder of Ajivika sect, was once a disciple and later on a great rival of
Mahavira.
The groups of halls on the Khandagiri and Udayagiri hills in Orissa were
made during the Sunga period. The inscriptions on these cave-dwellings clearly
prove that they had been made for and used by Jaina monks. The most famous
among these is the Hathigumpha with a long epigraph of king Kharavela. These
cave-dwellings do not have caitya-halls as is the characteristic of the
Buddhist rock-cut monasteries. The plastic treatment and relief sculptures on
these caves include figures of gods, demi-gods, tree with railing, and a figure
of goddess with two elephants, etc. A noteworthy sculpture shows a Greek
warrior and a bull-rider in Assyrian fashion.
The two caves at Pabhosa near Kosam in Allahabad District bearing
inscriptions of the Sunga age may or may not be associated with Jaina monks.
They are dedicated to the Kasyapiya Arhats which may refer either to the
followers of Mahavira who belonged to Kasyapa gotra or to the Buddhist monks of
Kasyapiya Sect. Among other relics of Jaina art dating from a pre-Christian
period may be mentioned an image of Parsvanatha in bronze now preserved in the
Prince of Wales Museum at Bombay , and the ruins
of a Jaina stupa at Mathura Mathura Mathura
and also of another stupa at Taksasila (Taxila) near Rawalpindi
During the Kusana period, Mahayana Buddhist faith had been fully,
developed and widely propagated throughout the subcontinent. This fact seems to
have influenced the growth of Devotional Jainism. Jainism also developed during
this period the worship of stupa, dharmacakra, ayagapata, caitya-vrksa and
auspicious symbols, like srivatsa, svastika, yugmamina, and of course, of the
images of Tirthankaras and of goddess Sarasvati along with those of a few
demigods. The figures of Tlrtharikaras are usually found in two poses:
kayotsarga-mudra and dhyana-mudra. As a rule the Tlrthankaras are portrayed
nude; their images are recognized sometimes by their special symbols
(lanchana), for example, images of Parsvanatha are recognized by a hooded
snake; many images bear inscriptions giving the name of the Jina. Often the
parents of the Jinas are pictured on stone along with gods and demi-gods.
A group of about twenty rock monastic caves has been found at Junagarh
in Gujarat . In cave B is an early form of
caitya-window; cave F is flat-roofed and a rather primitive cell. Cave K has
two rooms with sculptures of svastika, srivatsa and yugalamina. An inscription
of second century A.D. found here refers to those who have attained supreme
knowledge (kevala-jnana), and thus it seems that before that date and
originally these caves belonged to Buddhist monks. The presence of a stupa in
several of these caves proves their Buddhist origin. For hardly any Jaina cave
showing stupa-worship has been found in India ,
whereas most of the Buddhist rock-cut halls in Western
India have stupas as central objects of worship.
One of the early Jaina caves is the Sona-Bhandara
Cave in Rajgir in Bihar .
It has an inscription of first century A.D. recording that muni Vairadeva
caused to be excavated two caves for the use of Jaina monks with images of
Jinas installed in them. On the Vaibhara hill in Rajgir have been found ruins
of a temple with sculptures including a seated figure of Neminatha with an
inscription referring to Candragupta (the second). On the pedestal is curved
figure of a standing man hallowed by a wheel suggesting the conception of a
cakrapurusa. He is flanked by conches and seated figures of Jinas in dhyana.
Some of the exquisite examples of Jaina art of the Gupta period belong
to the Mathura Mathura , Sarnath, and Lucknow
In Karnataka
State
Mention may be made of a Jaina temple decorated with images of the Jinas
numbering thirty near the village of Kujipur in Southern Travancore .
This temple dates from the ninth century and is now known as Bhagavati- temple.
A group of seven small caves exists at Ankai near Manmad railway station. These
are products of early medieval age, and the iconography of the images of Jinas
in these caves is fully developed. The Jainas continued to excavate monastic
dwellings into live rocks till the 15th century A.D., as can be seen from the
caves in the Gwalior
There was a Jaina vihara at Paharpur in Bengal
from where a Jina image had been found along with a copper plate inscription
referring to the worship of the Arhats. A Jaina Stupa seems to have existed at
Simhapur in Ketas in the North West of India where Svetambara Jaina monks
practised austerities accordiag to Hsiuan-Tsang. A large number of Jaina images
in bronze were manufactured during the early medieval period. These bronze
icons have been found from Vallabhi in Gujarat, Akota near Baroda ,
and other places in Western India . Early
medieval age also witnessed the building of a large number of Jaina temples,
especially in Central and Western India, The Mahavira temple at Osia in former Jodhpur State temple city Mount
Abu
The tradition of Jaina painting is nearly as old as that of the Buddhist
painting. Faint traces of wall-paintings have been observed on the walls of
caves of Khandagiri and Udayagiri in Orissa. The earliest specimen of Jaina
painting can be seen in the wall-paintings at Sittannavasal in Madras Ajanta . Examples of Jaina paintings
are also found in Ellora caves. Noteworthy also are miniature paintings of
Digambara Jaina manuscripts at Mudabidri. Paintings of gods and demi-gods are
found in the Jaina temple
of Tirumalai
Jain religion in Pakistan
There are several Jain relics spread across Pakistan
Professor Noel King, Professor Emeritus of History & Comparative
Religion of University of California Santa Cruz had visited Pakistan
The so-called Jaina Stupa at Taxila
Valley
Taxila is one of the most important archeological. It flourished during
the 1st to 5th century A.D. when it became famous as a major seat of learning
of Buddhism. The Stupa is located near the city of Sirkap
The Lahore Museum has a fine collection of Jain relics mainly of
the material collected from the city of Gujranwala Chicago
The following murtis are all on display at the Lahore Museum Rawalpindi
to Lahore
Just a few dozen meters from the Shrine of the Double-Headed Eagle sits
the Jain Stupa, a relic of the Sirkap city period (2nd century B.C. to the 2nd
century A.D.). The shrine is badly ruined. Nothing of the superstructure
survives. The persepolitan columns with lion ornamentation that sit on the four
corners were brought here from the ruins of the courtyard.
LIST OF JAIN TEMPLES IN PAKISTAN
TOWN
|
LOCATION OF
|
PRESIDING DEITY
|
REMARKS
|
||||||||
1.
|
|||||||||||
a)
|
|||||||||||
b)
|
|||||||||||
c)
|
Jain
Shwetamber Dada
|
Guru
Mangat in
|
Foot
Prints in stone
|
||||||||
d)
|
Old
Anarkali
|
||||||||||
2.
|
KASUR( (District
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Kot
Rukun Din
|
Lord
Rishabh Dev
|
||||||||||||||||||||
3.
|
|||||||||||||||||||||
a)
|
Bazar
Bhabrian
|
Lord
Chintamani Parshva Nath
|
|||||||||||||||||||
b)
|
jain
Shwetamber Ghar Mandir Samadhi of Jain Acharya Atamaramji Maharaj with a
large Dome
|
Opposite
Camping Ground i.e. PARARO,
|
Lord
Vasupujya & Foot Prints of Acharya Atma Ramji
|
Images
& Foot Prints & Wood Work since removed to
|
|||||||||||||||||
c)
|
Jain
Shwetamber (Ghar Mandir)
|
Precincts
of
|
|||||||||||||||||||
4.
|
PAPNAKHA (District
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Jain Shwetamber Ghar Mandir
|
Village
Proper
|
Lord
Suvidha Nath
|
|||||||||||||||||||
5.
|
RAM NAGAR (District
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Gali
Bhabrian
|
Lord
Chintamani Parshva Nath
|
||||||||||||||||||||
6.
|
|||||||||||||||||||||
a)
|
Near
Namak Mandi in City
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Shikhar
|
|||||||||||||||||||||
b)
|
Cantonment
|
||||||||||||||||||||
7.
|
NORWAL (District
|
||||||||||||||||||||
8.
|
SANKHATRA (District
|
||||||||||||||||||||
9.
|
|||||||||||||||||||||
Jain Shwetamber Ghar Mandir
|
Bagh
Mohalla
|
Lord
Chandra Prabhu
|
|||||||||||||||||||
10.
|
PINID DADAN KHAN (District
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Jain Shwetamber Tempe
|
Town
Proper
|
Lords
Sumati Nath, Rishabh Dev & Shanti Nath
|
|||||||||||||||||||
11.
|
BHERA (District
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Gali
Bhabrian
|
Lord
Chandra Prabhu
|
About
500 years old
|
|||||||||||||||||||
12.
|
KHANGA DOGRAN (District Sheikhupura, Distance 70 K.M. from
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Lord
Shantinath & Lord Parshva Nath
|
|||||||||||||||||||||
13.
|
|||||||||||||||||||||
a)
|
Jain
Shwetamber Tempe with Shikhar
|
Mohalla
Choori Sarai
|
Images
shifted to Mumbai
|
||||||||||||||||||
b)
|
Jain
Shwetamber Dadawari
|
Jain
Bhawan Near Ram Kila Ground Mohalla Choori Sarai
|
Foot
Prints in stone
|
||||||||||||||||||
c)
|
Jain
Digambar Tempe with Shikhar
|
Mohalla
Choori Sarai
|
Images
shifted to Jaipur
|
||||||||||||||||||
d)
|
Jain
Digambar Tempe with Shikhar
|
Cantonment
|
|||||||||||||||||||
S. NO.
|
TOWN
|
LOCATION OF
|
PRESIDING DEITY
|
REMARKS
|
|||||
1.
|
|||||||||
a)
|
Ranchod
Line
|
Lord
Parshva Nath
|
|||||||
b)
|
|||||||||
2.
|
VILLAGE DERAWER (Tehsil Dera Nawab,
|
||||||||
Jain Shwetamber Dadawari
|
Crimination
site of Jain Samadhi Dada Guru Jin Kushal Suriji on a sand and an
|
||||||||
3.
|
|||||||||
Town
Proper
|
|||||||||
4.
|
NEW HALLA (
|
||||||||
a)
|
Town
Proper
|
||||||
b)
|
Jain
Dadawari (
|
2
K.M. from
|
Foot
Prints in Stone
|
||||
5.
|
|||||||
Village
Proper
|
Lord
Gauri Parshvanath
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TOWN
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LOCATION OF
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1.
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DERA GHAZI KHAN
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Block
No. 2, Jain Mohalla
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2.
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KALA BAGH (District Mainwali)
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3.
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LATAMBER (District Bannu)
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4.
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BANNU
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5.
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RAWAL PINDI (Distance 300 K.M. from
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Bhabra Community of Jains:
A net report says that Bhabra (or Bhabhra) are an ancient merchant
community from Punjab who mainly follow Jainism.
They have had a close historical association with Jainism and are
believed to be connected with the Bhavadar or Bhavada Gachchha to which the
legendary Jain Acharya Kalakacharya belonged to. They may have originated from
the Bhabra town. Inscriptions suggest that Bhavada Gachchha had survived until
17th century.
Jainism has been present in Punjab
since ancient times. This is where Alexander the Great encountered
Gymnosophists and the Chinese traveler Xuanzang met both Digambara and
Swetambara monks.
According to Shatrunjaya Mahatmya of Dhaneshwar Suri, Javad Shah of
Taxila had restored Shatrunjaya Tirth and brought an idol of Lord Adinath from
Taxila and installed it at Shatrunjaya.
Vaaran Bhai Gurdas (1550-1620A.D) says: There are many traders and many
Bhabras and goldsmiths.
In "Romantic Tales from the Punjab "
Charles Swynnerton relates a folk tale about several girls. It mentions a girl
being a Bhabra, and mentions them being strictly vegetarian. Their Jain
perspective on God's uninvolvment in world's affairs is mentioned.
In 17th century A.D. Fray Sebastien Manrique met them in Amritsar
The original home region of the Bhabras is now in Pakistan Pakistan
·
Sialkot :
All the Jains here were Bhabra and mainly lived in Sialkot India
·
Pasrur: Pasrur was
developed by a Jain landlord who was granted land by Raja Maan Singh. Baba
Dharam Dass belonged to the landlord family who was murdered on a trading
visit.
·
Gujranwala
·
Lahore
·
Rawalpindi
Some also lived in Sindh. A few
hundred Bhabras in Pakistan Pakistan
Holidays
·
Paryushan Parva, 10/8
(Digambar/Svetambar) day fasts, and for observe, 10/8 important principles.
·
Mahavir Janma Kalyanak,
Lord Mahavir's birth, it is popularly known as Mahavir Jayanti but the term
'jayanti' is inappropriate for a Tirthankar, as this term is used for mortals.
·
Kshamavaani, The day for
asking everyone's forgiveness.
·
Diwali, the nirvana day of
Lord Mahavira
Thanks: Book "Thread Not Scissor"
Common Spiritual Heritage for Peace and Harmony,
Heinrich Boll Foundation (HBF) Pakistan
Heinrich Boll Foundation (HBF) Pakistan
God Bless for such a good writing. I am Jain and read some amazing things today from your book about our Jainism.
ReplyDeleteGod Bless .